Book review

Origins of Language

Johansson, Sverker. 2005. Origins of Language: Constraints on Hypotheses. Amsterdam and Phildelphia: John Benjamins

Reviewed by Christina Behme, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada

The last 10 years have seen a wealth of book-length treatments dedicated either exclusively to language evolution (e.g. Dunbar 1997; Knight et al. 2000; Christiansen & Kirby 2003; Wildgen 2004; Burling 2005; Tallerman 2005) or providing detailed treatment of language evolution within a broader framework (e.g. Hauser 1996; Deacon 1997; Wray 2002; Jablonaka & Lamb 2005). Physicist Sverker Johansson adds another contribution to this fast growing collection. His Origins of Language combines an impressively multidisciplinary collection of data relevant to the study of language evolution without adding yet another speculative pet-theory to the topic. Instead, Johansson tries to establish firm constraints on evolutionary theorizing. These constraints concern evolutionary theory, the biological, mental and cognitive, and cultural basis of language as well as animal communication and cognition. Data from these fields of inquiry provide crucial information about the possible paths and the driving forces of language evolution and rule out many of the logically possible evolutionary hypotheses (p. 4).

Before we can theorize about language evolution we need to understand 'language' and 'evolutionary theory' and Johansson defines these terms in Chapters 2 and 3. He stresses that not only linguistic performance but also the underlying systematic structure and the cognitive processes that form the basis for language are in need of an evolutionary explanation. Therefore, it is likely that biological and cultural or memetic processes play a significant role in language evolution. Johansson holds that from the two currently dominating linguistic frameworks, generative grammar and cognitive linguistics, the former renders 'evolutionary explanations somewhat problematic' (p. 10). He reminds us that when we talk about evolution through natural selection we need to keep in mind that a population will only evolve when heritable variation within the population causes differential reproduction. Evolutionary processes are restricted by existing structures (so 'solutions' are often not optimal) and not infrequently recruit structures that originally evolved for some other purpose (exaptations, cf. Gould & Vrba 1982). It is crucial to remember that evolution never 'plans ahead'. This means that every intermediate step towards full-fledged language must convey some immediate advantage (or at least no detriment) to the organism in the here and now. These considerations almost certainly rule out the sudden occurrence of a monolithic universal grammar module (e.g., the 'instantaneous Great Leap' proposed by Chomsky 2006) and force us to explore animal (especially primate) communication for possible language precursors.

In Chapter 4 Johansson provides a detailed overview of the likely steps (bipedalism, tool and fire use, brain-size increase) of human evolution, departing from an apelike ancestor some five million years ago. He concludes that the 'uniform language capacities of all human populations today prove that all adaptations for language, biological and otherwise, must have been in place in the last common ancestor of all living people ... or at the very latest by the time different populations of modern humans parted company' (p. 74). This indicates that the human language capacity is at least 60,000, more likely 100,000, years old. During this period some important evolutionary changes had to occur. Chapter 5 explores the anatomical and neurological prerequisites for modern language. Johansson stresses as main differences between humans and other mammals the changes of the vocal tract, which allow the production of rapid sequences of precisely modulated sounds and the enhanced processing power of the brain. He discusses the importance of brain size, lateralization, plasticity and small-scale modularity and concludes that in all likelihood language is 'handled by several subsystems, many of which have nonlinguistic functions' (p. 117).

The following chapters (6-8) deal with animal communication in the wild and in the lab and the potential for consciousness, theory of mind and self-awareness in non-human animals. Johansson holds that many animals have adequate hearing to perceive language relevant sound differences, that at least some animal calls are composite and might have a referential function and that in lab-settings some apes can achieve joint reference, comprehend simple syntax and 'invent' novel signs. This could indicate that 'at least some components of language ... are not strictly limited to Homo sapiens' (p. 141). Similarly, it has become evident that at least primates (but probably also other animals) have the neural capacity for consciousness and pass several 'theory of mind' and self-awareness tests. Thus, it appears that many of the pre-requisites for language are either present or within the cognitive grasp of (some) non-human animals. On the one hand these facts open the way for plausible evolutionary theorizing. On the other hand they underscore the importance of finding an answer to the question: why are we the only ones who have such a complex language.

The remaining chapters address the above points. Johansson surveys the by now well-known dichotomies: (i) language as adaptation vs. spandrel, (ii) early vs. late language emergence, (iii) gradual vs. sudden language evolution, (iv) speech vs. gestures as earliest forms of language, (v) genetic vs. cultural evolution and he investigates for which purpose language could have evolved (e.g., hunting, tool making, sexual selection, child care and teaching, social interactions, music or art). And, while no clear winner emerges from the plethora of possible combinations, Johansson claims that at least some contenders can be eliminated (e.g., sudden emergence of a complex genetically specified language module). In other cases theorizing ought to move away from the either-or approach of dichotomies and consider a 'middle ground' (e.g., in the adaptation vs. spandrel debate). Further, it appears possible to find many precursors of full-fledged language such as proto-speech, proto-gestures and proto-syntax. How these 'protos' were eventually combined into language is still a matter of ongoing research but Johansson is confident 'that the evolution of language is possible, in a process in which both biological and cultural-memetic evolution play prominent roles' (p. 247).

For some readers it might be disappointing that Johansson rarely offers detailed critical analyses of the competing views he introduces. Further, his interpretation of the data seems at times not at the 'latest stand' (for a critical review see Fitch 2005). But overall Johansson offers a very useful overview of the many different types of data that are relevant to language evolution. He writes clearly without unnecessary jargon, provides summaries at the end of most chapters and the 80+ page reference section will be a valuable tool for anyone seriously interested in the field of language evolution.

References

Burling, R. 2005. The Talking Ape. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Chomsky, N. 2006. Language and Mind. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Christiansen, M., & Kirby, S. Eds., 2003. Language Evolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Deacon, T. 1997. The Symbolic Species. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.

Dunbar, R. 1997. Grooming, Gossip, and the Evolution of Language. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Fitch, T. 2005. Hypothetically Speaking. American Scientist [available online here]

Fitch, T., Hauser, M., & Chomsky, N. 2005. The evolution of the language faculty: Clarifications and implications. Cognition 97, 179. Cambridge. MA: MIT Press.

Knight, C., Studdert-Kennedy, M., & Hurford, J. Eds. 2000. The evolutionary emergence of language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Jablonka, E., & Lamb, M. 2005. Evolution in Four Dimensions. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Lieberman, P. 2007. The Evolution of Human Speech: Its Anatomical and Neural Bases. Current Anthropology, 48, 39-66.

Tallerman, Maggie. (Ed.) 2005. Language Origins: Perspectives on Evolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Wildgen, Wolfgang. 2004. The Evolution of Human Language. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.

Wray, Alison. (ed.) 2002. The Transition to Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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